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Early diverging Ascomycota: phylogenetic divergence and related evolutionary enigmas

     Tokyo Office, TechnoSuruga Co. Ltd., Ogawamachi Kita Building 4F, Kanda Ogawamachi 1-8-3, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0052, Japan

Kentaro Hosaka

     Department of Botany, The Field Museum, 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496

Sung-Oui Suh

     Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

 

The early diverging Ascomycota lineage, detected primarily from nSSU rDNA sequence-based phylogenetic analyses, includes enigmatic key taxa important to an understanding of the phylogeny and evolution of higher fungi. At the moment six representative genera of early diverging ascomycetes (i.e. Taphrina, Protomyces, Saitoella, Schizosaccharomyces, Pneumocystis and Neolecta) have been assigned to "Archiascomycetes" sensu Nishida and Sugiyama (1994) or the subphylum "Taphrinomycotina" sensu Eriksson and Winka (1997). The group includes fungi that are ecologically and morphologically diverse, and it is difficult therefore to define the group based on common phenotypic characters. Bayesian analyses of nSSU rDNA or combined nSSU and nLSU rDNA sequences supported previously published Ascomycota frameworks that consist of three major lineages (i.e. a group of early diverging Ascomycota [Taphrinomycotina], Saccharomycotina and Pezizomycotina); Taphrinomycotina is the sister group of Saccharomycotina and Pezizomycotina. The 50% majority rule consensus of 18 000 Bayesian MCMCMC-generated trees from multilocus gene sequences of nSSU rDNA, nLSU rDNA (D1/D2), RPB2 and ß-tubulin also showed the monophyly of the three subphyla and the basal position of Taphrinomycotina in Ascomycota with significantly higher statistical support. However to answer controversial questions on the origin, monophyly and evolution of the Taphrinomycotina, additional integrated phylogenetic analyses might be necessary using sequences of more genes with broader taxon sampling from the early diverging Ascomycota.

Key words: basal Ascomycota, classification, evolution, molecular phylogeny

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

 
The ascomycete subphylum Taphrinomycotina sensu Eriksson and Winka (1997) was based on the provisional class "Archiascomycetes" proposed by Nishida and Sugiyama (1993, 1994b). The taxon was based on nuclear small subunit (nSSU) rDNA sequence analyses, and it is an assemblage of the diverse early diverging Ascomycota. The group includes taxa that have been central to evolutionary theories concerning the origin of the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Among numerous phylogenetic hypotheses one by Savile (1955 Savile (1968) on the phylogeny of higher fungi has attracted the attention of mycologists for more than 50 y; it is a logical hypothesis based on phenotypic characters, particularly those of comparative morphology (Kramer 1987, Sugiyama and Nishida 1995, Sugiyama 1998, Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001). Savile (1955 Savile (1968) proposed that Taphrina Fr. represented an early divergence within the higher Fungi (i.e. the present-day Taphrina was the closest survivor of "Prototaphrina," a hypothetical genus and common ancestor of the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). One major lineage led to the present day Taphrina and the Ascomycota, whereas another line led to the Basidiomycota (i.e. the Uredinales line and the parasitic Auriculariaceae via a "Protobasidiomycete"). Cavalier-Smith (1987) proposed another hypothesis on the basis of ultra-structural and molecular (5S ribosomal RNA sequences) data; he suggested that the Taphrinomycetes (including Taphrinales, Schizosaccharomycetales and Protomycetales) evolved independently from a Saccharomycetes-Mucorales-Entomophthorales group by the total loss of chitin, and he placed the Taphrinomycetes and Saccharomycetes in the phylum Endomycota. Cavalier-Smith (2001) subsequently accommodated the Taphrinomycetes and Saccharomycetes as classes within the Hemiascomycotina. The existence of chitinous walls in species of Taphrina (Nishida and Sugiyama 1994a, Nishida 2005) and Schizosaccharomyces (e.g. Bowen et al 1992) had been shown with molecular techniques and refuted a hypothesis based on loss of chitin. Additional historical background on the phylogenetic and evolutionary theories related to Taphrina and the definition and circumscription of the Taphrinomycotina were reviewed by Sugiyama and Nishida (1995), Alexopoulos et al (1996), Sugiyama (1998) and Kurtzman and Sugiyama (2001).

As stated above Nishida and Sugiyama (1993, 1994b) initially treated their provisional class "Archiascomycetes" as monophyletic, accommodating five genera Taphrina, Protomyces, Saitoella, Schizosaccharomyces and Pneumocystis. The common characters of the five genera are: (i) A sexually reproductive state (not present in Saitoella) is ascogenous but ascogenous hyphae are not formed; (ii) asexual reproduction is by budding or fission; (iii) neither ascomata nor conidiomata are formed; and (iv) the vegetative state is hyphal or yeast-like (TABLE I). On the basis of nSSU rDNA sequence analyses Landvik et al (1993) and Landvik (1996) subsequently included the apothecial ascomycete genus Neolecta in the early diverging ascomycete lineage defined by Berbee and Taylor (1993, 1995), and Sjamsuridzal et al (1997) confirmed the addition of Neolecta into the group based on the same gene, thus causing an evolutionary enigma. Characteristics of all the representative genera and other ascomycete yeasts and filamentous ascomycetes are compared (TABLE I); these phenotypic characters used to circumscribe the Taphrinomycotina are unclear with the inclusion of Neolecta in the group.

Here we briefly describe the respective biological profiles of six genera of early diverging ascomycetes (i.e. Taphrina Fr., Protomyces Unger, Saitoella Goto et al, Schizosaccharomyces Lindner, Pneumocystis P. Delanoë & Delanoë and Neolecta Speg.).

Taphrina.— – This genus usually has been placed in the monotypic family Taphrinaceae in the Taphrinales (e.g. Kramer 1973 e.g. Kramer 1987; Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001; Kirk et al 2001). Species of Taphrina are pathogenic primarily on ferns and higher plants (particularly the Rosales and Fagales). They are dimorphic with a saprobic haploid uninucleate yeast state (von Arx et al 1982), which is assignable to the anamorph genus Lalaria R.T. Moore (1990). This genus accommodates 95 species (Kirk et al 2001). Two representative species in the genus are well known: T. wiesneri Ráthay (=T. cerasi [Fuckel] Sadeb.), attacking Japanese cherry ("Sakura") tree and causing witches’ brooms, and T. deformans, causing peach leaf curl. The life cycle of the latter species is well studied cytologically (Alexopoulos et al 1996). The yeast (budding) states of species of genera Taphrina, Protomyces and Saitoella are morphologically, biochemically and chemotaxonomically similar (Sugiyama and Nishida 1995, Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001, Lopandic et al 2005). Most published nSSU rDNA (Sjamsuridzal et al 1997, Bacigálová et al 2003) and nLSU rDNA (D1/D2) (Rodrigues and Fonseca 2003, Inácio et al 2004) phylogenies confirmed the monophyly of the genus with the probable exception of T. vestergrenii Giesenhagen to be mentioned later.

Protomyces.— – This genus usually is placed in the Protomycetaceae in the order Protomycetales with four other genera (Reddy and Kramer 1975). The phylogenetic hypothesis proposed for the Protomycetales (Reddy and Kramer 1975) has not been tested, and only the genus Protomyces is included in our study. The remaining taxa, including Burenia, Protomycopsis, Taphridium and Volkartia, remain to be sampled. Species of Protomyces are also parasitic on higher plants, mainly the Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae) and Asteraceae (=Compositae), and the species can be cultured on artificial media like Taphrina spp. Biological and cultural properties of Protomyces inouyei, P. lactucae-debilis Sawada and P. pachydermus von Thümen have been characterized by Tubaki (1957). nSSU rDNA sequence phylogeny demonstrated that these three Protomyces spp. and P. macro-sporus Unger form a monophyletic group (Sjamsuridzal et al 1997). In addition a core group comprising Taphrina (including T. vestergrenii) and Protomyces spp. always appeared to be monophyletic with strong bootstrap support (100%) (Sjamsuridzal et al 1997, Bacigálová et al 2003). As Kurtzman (1993) pointed out, the Protomycetales might be synonymous with the Taphrinales. Kirk et al (2001) and Eriksson (2005) have accommodated the two families, Taphrinomycetaceae and Protomycetaceae, into the order Taphrinales.

Saitoella.— – This genus usually has been treated as incertae sedis among the early diverging ascomycetes (Eriksson 2005, Sugiyama 2005). Kurtzman and Sugiyama (2001) accommodated it within the Protomycetaceae based on nSSU rDNA sequence-based phylogeny and the primary phenotypic characteristics (e.g. Sjamsuridzal et al 1997, Sugiyama 1998). The genus comprises only the type species S. complicata, which is a saprobic soil-living yeast the lacks true hyphae and is superficially similar to Rhodotorula glutinis (Fres.) F.C. Harrison, a basidiomycetous asexual yeast. It lacks a meiotic cycle. Saitoella shares some characteristics typical of both ascomycetes and basidiomycetes (Goto et al 1987). The history of studies on Saitoella was fully described by Sugiyama et al (1993). Although previous phylogenetic studies using nSSU rDNA sequences elucidated the identity of S. complicata as an ascomycete (Nishida and Sugiyama 1993, 1994b; Nishida et al 1993) its evolutionary relationship to other members in the Taphrinomycotina remains unresolved.

Schizosaccharomyces.— – Kurtzman (1993) and Eriksson et al (1993) placed the genus Schizosaccharomyces in the monotypic family Schizosaccharomycetaceae and the order Schizosaccharomycetales. The genus contains only three species, which inhabit sugar-rich plant materials, such as fruits and honey (Vaughan-Martini and Martini 1998, Barnett et al 2000). The type species, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is saprobic and is characterized by exclusive fission-type of vegetative reproduction and Q-10 as the major ubiquinone system. The circumscription and classification of S. pombe and allied taxa were reviewed by Kurtzman and Sugiyama (2001).

Pneumocystis.— – The genus Pneumocystis has been accommodated in the monotypic family Pneumocystidaceae, order Pneumocystidales (Eriksson 1994). This genus comprises three or more species that can infect humans and other animals; they are unculturable on routine laboratory media. Pneumocystis is a principal causal agent of pneumonia in patients with HIV infections. This organism was considered to be a protozoan until Edman et al (1988) found it is a fungus based on nSSU rRNA sequence comparisons. Nishida and Sugiyama (1994b) placed the genus within the Archiascomycetes. The life cycle of P. carinii, including mitosis and cytoplasmic fission, was illustrated by Yoshida (1989) and Dei-Cas and Cailliez (1998) on the basis of ultrastructural studies. Taylor et al (1994) and Sugiyama and Nishida (1995) discussed the similarity of life cycles between the fission saprobic yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (or S. octosporus) and the mammal lung pathogen P. carinii. Previously known as Pneumocystis carinii, the human pathogen has been reclassified in another species, P. jirovecii Frenkel (cf. Redhead et al 2006). The nomenclatural problems associated with the genus Pneumocystis also were discussed by Redhead et al (2006).

Neolecta.— – The genus Neolecta has been assigned to the monotypic family Neolectaceae, order Neolectales (Landvik et al 1993). This genus contains three species that are saprobic or weakly parasitic on plant rootlets, but their ecology is little known (Landvik et al 2001). The species are characterized by clavate and stalked apothecia, and cylindrical, aparaphysate and eight-spored asci. Neolecta spp. recently have been characterized morphologically, including ultrastructural morphology, by Landvik et al (2003) (cf. TABLE I). Landvik’s (1996) cladistic analyses with nSSU and nLSU rDNA sequences demonstrated that both N. vitellina and N. irregularis grouped together in the branch with the early diverging Ascomycota defined by Berbee and Taylor (1993). Sjamsuridzal et al (1997), Liu et al (1999) and Landvik et al (2001) subsequently confirmed the position of Neolecta among the early diverging Ascomycota with nSSU rDNA, RPB2 and ß-tubulin genes sequences, respectively. Taxonomically Eriksson and Winka (1997) and Eriksson (2005) have accommodated Neolecta in the Neolectomycetes/Taphrinomycotina, whereas Sugiyama (2005) placed it within the Neolectales/ "Archiascomycetes".

The aim of this paper is to shed light on the enigmatic evolutionary relationships of the Taphrinomycotina and to contribute to a taxonomic or systematic framework of the early diverging Ascomycota taxa. We report the use of protein coding genes in addition to rDNA to clarify the relationships of these genera.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

 
A total of 23 taxa, including 11 early diverging Ascomycota (Taphrinomycotina sensu Eriksson 2005), three Saccharomycotina, six Pezizomycotina and three Basidiomycota were sampled (TABLE II). Three species of Basidiomycota were used as outgroup taxa. DNA sequence data were obtained from four loci, nuclear small subunit ribosomal DNA (nSSU rDNA), D1/D2 region of nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA (nLSU rDNA), the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase (RPB2) and ß-tubulin. Because the sequence data for all four loci were not available for some taxa only taxa with at least three sequences were included in the phylogenetic analyses.

Parsimony analyses (MP) were conducted using PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford 2002) with the heuristic search option (TBR and MULTREES on) and 1000 replicates of random addition sequence. Support for individual nodes was tested by bootstrapping of 500 replicates with the heuristic search option (TBR and MULTREES on) with five random addition sequences. Neighbor joining (NJ) analyses were conducted using PAUP*4.0b10 with the GTR model and a gamma shape set to 0.5. Support for individual nodes was tested by bootstrap analysis under the same settings. For both MP and NJ criteria, two independent analyses were conducted with or without the third codon position.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

 
We initially compared the representative published nSSU rDNA sequence-based trees (e.g. Berbee and Taylor 1993, 1995, 2001; Nishida and Sugiyama 1994b; Sjamsuridzal et al 1997; Sugiyama 1998; Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001; Tehler et al 2003; Lutzoni et al 2004) and our trees as inferred from the available sequence data for the selected ascomycete taxa. Trees were generated from NJ with 1000 bootstrap replications and maximum likelihood (ML) with posterior probabilities (300 000 generations) analyses comparing 33 early diverging species (22 Taphrina spp., four Protomyces spp., one Saitoella sp., one Schizosaccharomyces sp., two Pneumocystis spp. and two Neolecta spp.), three hemiascomycete spp. and four euascomycete spp. with Filobasidiella neoformans as outgroup (trees not shown). Both distance and parsimony analyses divided the Ascomycota into three major clades, Taphrinomycotina, Saccharomycotina and Pezizomycotina. Both trees also clearly demonstrated that all early diverging taxa grouped together as monophyletic, although only moderately well supported. The bootstrap value for the respective nodes between the Taphrinomycotina and other ascomycetes was respectively 84% and 63%. Among the Taphrinomycotina clade all Taphrina and Protomyces spp. in our analyses formed a monophyletic core group with 100% statistical support in both trees. In this clade T. vestergrenii was sister of other Taphrina and Protomyces spp. The phylogenetic position of T. vestergrenii is of special interest, especially in light of the fact that its host plant is a fern. The nLSU rDNA (D1/D2 region) sequence-based NJ analysis also has demonstrated that T. vestergrenii appeared to be placed at an intermediate position between the two genera (Rodrigues and Fonseca 2003). The remaining early diverging ascomycete taxa were placed as paraphyletic to the Taphrina-Protomyces clade in both trees. However the branching order varied between NJ and ML trees. It is noteworthy that in the ML tree a branch (having 62% bootstrap support) consisting of Saitoella complicata, Neolecta vitellina and N. irregularis was sister of the branch (having 95% bootstrap support) leading to a core group of Taphrina-Protomyces spp., Pneumocystis carinii and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. As a whole the tree topologies in this study were similar to those in previously published studies (e.g. Berbee and Taylor 1993, 2001; Nishida and Sugiyama 1994b; Sjamsuridzal et al 1997; Sugiyama 1998; Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001; Tehler et al 2003; Lutzoni et al 2004), although the outcome of higher level taxa was different. The results based on our nSSU rRNA dataset from 160 species of Ascomycota are summarized (SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE III) and support a monophyletic Taphrinomycotina as previously suggested by Nishida and Sugiyama (1994b) and Sjamsuridzal et al (1997).

A consensus of eight parsimony trees with 1000 bootstrap replications generated from a dataset of nSSU rDNA+nLSU rDNA (D1/D2 region) sequences (tree not shown) also supported the principal topology resulting from the nSSU rDNA sequence analyses mentioned above; however the branch leading to the Taphrinomycotina received only 56% bootstrap value.

Phylogenetic analysis of various combinations of multigene sequence data available for the Taphrinomycotina included these genes: nSSU rDNA, nLSU rDNA, RPB1, RPB2, EF-1, ATP6 and ß-tubulin. The tree topologies within the Taphrinomycotina lineage varied among trees depending on the combination of genes used in the analyses; these results will be published elsewhere. Among the seven genes targeted only the sequences of nSSU rDNA, nLSU rDNA, RPB2 and ß-tubulin were available for sufficient numbers of taxa to cover most known genera of the Taphrinomycotina. We therefore performed Bayesian analyses for the combined dataset of the four gene sequences with GTR++I model for a total of eight data partitions (i.e. nSSU rDNA, nLSU rDNA and the respective codon positions of RBP2 and ß-tubulin). The alignment of 23 nSSU rDNA sequences included 1870 sites, of which 1568 were included, and a total of 194 were potentially parsimony informative. The alignment of 23 nLSU rDNA sequences included 649 sites, of which 395 were included, and a total of 131 were potentially parsimony informative. The final RPB2 dataset included 19 sequences and had a total length of 1539 sites after excluding ambiguously aligned regions and spliceosomal introns, of which 855 sites were potentially parsimony informative. The final ß-tubulin gene dataset included 19 sequences and had a total length of 872 sites after excluding ambiguously aligned regions and spliceosomal introns, of which 176 sites were potentially parsimony informative. The tree generated from these data is provided (FIG. 2) with the changes in topology with or without the third codon position of two protein-coding genes noted. The Taphrinomycotina as well as the Saccharomycotina, Pezizomycotina and Saccharomycotina plus Pezizomycotina were monophyletic in the 50% majority rule consensus of 18 000 Bayesian MCMCMC trees. The detection of these three major lineages agreed with those of the previous studies (e.g. Berbee and Taylor 1993, 2001; Nishida and Sugiyama 1994b; Sjamsuridzal et al 1997; Sugiyama 1998; Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001; Tehler et al 2003). Some nSSU rDNA phylogenies (e.g. Sugiyama 1998, Bacigálová et al 2003, Lopandic et al 2005) showed the monophyly of Taphrinomycotina with 76–94% bootstrap support although the branching order was different among the Taphrinomycotina lineage. On the other hand Landvik et al (2001), Lutzoni et al (2004) and Taylor et al (2004) showed the basal paraphyly of the Taphrinomycotina.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 2. Phylogeny of the basal Ascomycota. Tree topology is based on the 50% majority rule consensus of 18 000 Bayesian MCMCMC-generated trees. Numbers on branches indicate Bayesian posterior probability. Positions separated by a slash indicate bootstrap values based on parsimony analysis with third codon position/ parsimony analysis without third codon position/ neighbor joining (NJ) analysis with third codon position/NJ analysis without third codon position; an asterisk indicates lack of bootstrap support. Branches supported by 95% posterior probability and 70% bootstrap value in all analyses (parsimony vs. NJ, third codon included vs. excluded) are indicated by thick lines. Dotted arrows indicate alternative groupings found with 70% bootstrap support: I = parsimony analysis with third codon position; II = both parsimony and NJ analyses with third codon position; III = NJ analysis without third codon position.

Our Bayesian analysis showed Neolecta as sister taxon of Schizosaccharomyces and Pneumocystis, which is more or less consistent with that of Landvik et al (2001) although their trees indicated a sister relationship of Neolecta and Pneumocystis, not including Schizosaccharomyces. These relationships were not supported in any other analyses (i.e. parsimony or NJ). On the other hand Sjamsuridzal et al (1997) showed a sister relationship of Neolecta and Saitoella. Species of Neolecta (Redhead 1977) and Saitoella (Goto et al 1987) might share the budding state as already suggested by Sugiyama (1998). The newest molecular phylogeny of fungi, based on Bayesian analysis of the combined six gene (nSSU rDNA, nLSU rDNA, ITS, EF-1, RPB1 and RPB2) dataset by Timothy Y. James (personal communication), suggested the Taphrinomycotina, although lacking taxon sampling from Saitoella and Neolecta, is monophyletic with strong bootstrap support. However further discussion should wait until the accumulation of more genes and sequences from more taxon samples.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

 
Early diverging ascomycetes sometimes assigned to the subphylum Taphrinomycotina (= "Archiascomycetes") differ markedly in habitat and morphology. Phylogenetic trees using datasets of nSSU rDNA, nSSU rDNA+nLSU rDNA and nSSU rDNA+nLSU rDNA+RPB2+ß-tubulin suggested the monophyly of Taphrinomycotina and its sister group relationship with two major ascomycete lineages (i.e. the Saccharomycotina [=Hemiascomycetes] and the Pezizomycotina [=euascomycetes]). At the moment one of the authors ( J.S.) supports the monophyly of the Taphrinomycotina for the early diverging ascomycetes in the phylum Ascomycota (Nishida and Sugiyama 1994b, de Hoog et al 2000, Sugiyama 2005) based on a biologist’s insight. In addition several recent studies based on a total environmental DNA sampling approach have revealed potentially new basal ascomycete lineages independent of the Taphrinomycotina (Jumpponen and Johnson 2005, Schadt et al 2003, Vandenkoornhuyse et al 2002). Multigene sequence data, especially for protein coding genes, unfortunately are not available for a sufficient number of taxa for a phylogenetic analysis of the group. All the questions on the monophyly, branching order and the origin and evolutionary events of the early diverging Ascomycota remain uncertain. Therefore an integrated analysis of phenotypic and genotypic (molecular) characters from more taxon samples of the archiascomycetes is one of the most fascinating and urgent subjects in fungal systematics and evolution.

View larger version (128K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 1. Macro- and micromorphology showing the diversity of the representative taxa in the early diverging Ascomycota. a. Witches’ broom disease of a Japanese cherry tree ("Sakura": Cerasus yedoensis) caused by Taphrina wiesneri (photo by Keisuke Tubaki). b. Mature asci of T. wiesneri on leaf tissue of a Japanese cherry tree showing ascospore budding (blastoconidium formation) (photo by Keisuke Tubaki). c. A colony on potato dextrose agar (photo by Keisuke Tubaki). d. Symptoms of peach leaf curl disease caused by Taphrina deformans (photo courtesy Hideyuki Nagao). e. Hymenium of Taphrina caerulescens, causal agent of Quercus leaf curl (photo courtesy Hideyuki Nagao). f. Galls induced by Protomyces inouyei on stem of Youngia japonica (photo by Keisuke Tubaki). g. Germination of a thick-walled resting spore of P. inouyei in water (microphotograph by Keisuke Tubaki). h. Colonies of Rhodosporidium toruloides (anamorph: Rhodotorula glutinis) (top), Saitoella complicata (right) and Taphrina wiesneri (left) on potato dextrose agar. i. Saitoella complicata: TEM showing enteroblastic budding, characteristic of basidiomycetous yeast. j. Saitoella complicate. TEM showing the cell wall ultrastructure of the ascomycete type composed of one thin, dark layer and a broad, light inner layer. k. Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Fission and an ascus containing four ascospores (microphotograph courtesy Kouzaburo Mikata). l. Pneumocystis carinii [sic]. Mature cyst containing intracystic bodies (endospores). (From Dei-Cas and Cailliez 1998; reproduced with permission from Blackwell Publishing). m. Neolecta vitellina. Bright yellow fruit-bodies that can grow several cm tall (photo courtesy Sara Landvik). Bars: b, e, g = 20 µm; i = 0.5 µm; j = 0.1 µm; k = 5 µm; l = 1 µm.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

	FOOTNOTES

 
Accepted for publication September 19, 2006.

¹ Corresponding author. E-mail: jsugiyam{at}tecsrg.co.jp

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