| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
R. Bauer
Lehrstuhl Spezielle Botanik und Mykologie, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 1, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
D.J. McLaughlin
Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
A major goal of the Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life project is to create a searchable database <http://aftol.umn.edu> of selected ultrastructural and biochemical characters from published and new data for use in phylogenetic and other analyses. While developing this database such issues as evaluating specimen fixation quality in published micrographs, organizing data to accommodate characters that were dependent on location and developmental stage, and requiring accountability of data contributors were addressed. Character states for three traits, septal pore apparatus, nuclear division and spindle pole body cycle, are illustrated, and character states are resolved with maximum parsimony and plotted on a summary cladogram of known phylogenetic relationships of the Fungi. The analysis illustrates the inherent phylogenetic signal of these characters, the paucity of comparable characters and character states in subcellular studies and the challenges in establishing a comprehensive structural and biochemical database of the Fungi.
Key words: cytology, informatics, morphology, phylogeny, ultrastructure
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
). With the advent of analyses of molecular sequence data in the 1990s many unexpected or unexplained taxonomic relationships were uncovered, e.g. the phylogenetic separation between Blastocladiales and Chytridiales ( James et al 2000, this issue), unexpected phylogenetic diversity of Zygomycota (Benny et al 2001, Cavalier-Smith 2001, Lutzoni et al 2004, White et al this issue), the surprising basal position of Neolecta within the Ascomycota (Landvik 1996, Kurtzman and Sugiyama 2001) and the separation of the loculoas-comycetous taxa within the filamentous ascomycetes (Lutzoni et al 2004), mimicry among smut taxa which resulted in their classification in two subphyla (Bruns et al 1992, Swann and Taylor 1995, Bauer et al 1997, Swann et al 2001, Aime et al this issue, Begerow et al this issue) and the taxonomic placement of gasteromycetous taxa among the reorganized Agaricomycetes (Hibbett et al 1997, Hibbett and Thorn 2001, Binder and Hibbett this issue, Hosaka et al this issue). These newly discovered relationships require the reevaluation of structural characters at all taxon levels to recognize homologies. Subcellular or ultrastructural characters are unevenly studied. Reports on subcellular characters are widely scattered in the literature and not easy to retrieve and compare. In addition the extent of their prior analysis is difficult to assess. Such characters provide additional challenges in that the quality of the image depends on the method of cell preservation and familiarity of the user with the results of the methods used in evaluation. While molecular sequence databases are available for Fungi (e.g. GenBank, WASABI, UNITE, EMBL and COGEME) structural databases are not available at a time when the volume and complexity of the data exceed the ability of an individual to comprehend it. To assess the new homologies revealed by molecular data, structural databases for the Fungi are a necessity.
This paper provides an introduction to the Structural and Biochemical Database for the Fungi being compiled by the Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life (AFTOL) project and uses the characters associated with the septal pore apparatus, nuclear division and the spindle pole body (SPB) to illustrate how structural characters support current molecular phylogenetic analyses of the Fungi.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
Mycological publications were reviewed to determine the types of subcellular and biochemical characters to include in the database. Taxa were chosen for initial inclusion in the database based on the completeness of the studies and the quality of cell preservation. Newly defined characters and characters previously shown to be phylogenetically informative are included in the database. The traits chosen for the database are the septum and septal pore organization, nuclear division, spindle pole body form and cycles, meiospore and meiosporangium differentiation, selected cytoplasmic features (e.g. Golgi apparatus, Spitzenkörper, microscala, colacosomes), motile cell structure, specialized cell structures (e.g. cystidia, paraphyses), haustorium-host interface, and selected biochemical characters (e.g. metabolic pathways and cell wall composition). Diagrams used to illustrate these characters and character states were made either by a professional artist or by using Adobe® Illustrator® CS2 (Adobe Systems Inc., San Jose, California).
The fixation quality in electron micrographs from source references was evaluated and recorded in a separate data field. For objective analysis of specimen fixation we noted the protocol employed in each study. We then assessed the quality of the micrographs based on what could be expected in terms of fixation artifacts from each method (Hayat 1970, Hoch 1986). We checked the appearance of certain cell components, continuity and smoothness of cell membranes, cytoplasmic rearrangement compared to living cells and minimal extraction of cellular material (Flegler et al 1993). Mitochondria also were examined for inner and outer membrane integrity and lack of swelling. Qualitative judgment was made on the completeness of each study, taking into consideration specimen fixation and the thoroughness with which the organism was presented in text and figures. Micrographs are included to illustrate character states of a taxon with permission of publisher(s) and/or author(s).
Taxonomic classifications are based on Eriksson (2005) (Ascomycota), Hibbett and Thorn (2001) (Basidiomycota), James et al (2000) (Chytridiomycota) and Benny et al (2001) (Zygomycota), and these have been adapted to reflect the classification being developed by the AFTOL project in collaboration with other mycologists (Blackwell et al this issue, <http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/AFTOL.htm>). Taxa of uncertain placement above the genus level also are included. If a genus and/or specific epithet have changed, both the name from the source reference and the current name are provided.
The database can be searched with three criteria, partial or full genus and/or species names, rank and character state. From the search results, coded character states from selected taxa can be compiled automatically and displayed in NEXUS format (Maddison et al 1997) for easy implementation in commonly used phylogenetic software.
Septum characters are divided into five developmental stages: hypha excluding ascogenous hypha/ascus, multi-perforate septum, basidium, immature ascogenous hypha/ ascus and mature ascogenous hypha/ascus (SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE I). The type and nuclear condition of the hypha or specialized cell from which septum character data were described are noted for each entry, as is meiosis or mitosis for nuclear division and spindle pole body character data.
Character homology.— – The most critical issue in interpreting the evolutionary significance and phylogenetic application of organismal traits is determining homology of characters and their states. We have used comparative methods to determine initial character and character state homologies for structural characters across kingdom Fungi. The presence of the same or similar structural features at a developmental stage in closely related taxa provides support for homology of a character or character state (e.g. the many characters associated with the septal pore at specific stages in development). We also have relied on character assessments in the literature by mycologists familiar with specific taxonomic groups. Most SPB and nuclear division characters are relatively easy to evaluate because these are usually common to all fungi, but specialized structures, such as those in the cytoplasm around the septal pore or their variations at different stages in development, may or may not be homologous, especially in distantly related taxa.
Molecular phylogenetic analyses can be used to refine character assessment; e.g. once it was clear that smut fungi consisted of two independently derived groups, the subtle differences in organization of the SPBs in each group could be recognized as distinct character states (McLaughlin et al 1995). In a number of cases (e.g. multiperforate septum) we have presumed that characters are homologous until further evidence is available. These characters must be used with caution and need to be reassessed when additional data become available.
Character mapping.— –
A data matrix of 241 taxa and 47 subcellular characters with 190 character states (SUPPLEMENTARY APPENDIX 1) was compiled from the AFTOL Structural and Biochemical Database and loaded into MacClade v4.08 (Maddison and Maddison 2005). The database contains eight taxa of unknown taxonomic placement. These taxa were omitted from the data matrix. A summary tree representing relationships between phyla, classes and subclasses of the Fungi based on recently published and unpublished data (Lutzoni et al 2004, Matheny et al in press, James et al in press, Spatafora et al this issue) was constructed by organizing the taxa in the data matrix according to these classifications. Characters were plotted on the summary cladogram with "trace all changes" with the "approximate maximum number of changes" option. Polytomies were treated as simultaneous multiple speciation events ("hard"). Polymorphic character state assignments for branches subtending clades were ignored.
|
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
) shows the relationships between data groups. The focus of the database is the table linking species, cell type and character state information. The ancillary information table contains data about bibliographic information and information on fixation method and quality. The voucher information table includes the herbarium or culture collection where the voucher specimen or culture was deposited, and collector data when available. The database contains information from 163 published source references with the journals Mycologia and Canadian Journal of Botany yielding the highest number of hits at 36 each.
|
There are three levels of database access: general users who may only view data, contributors who may submit new data or changes to the data and administrators who approve content updates and maintain the database. Species entries contain a record of the person who submitted the data and the entry date. Administrators review changes to the database before edits are made.
Many factors affected the quality of the data entered into the database. Source references may have one or two informative figures that provide character state data for only a few characters. Also some studies use figures displaying fair to poor fixation quality and containing features now known to be artifacts. These organisms should be reinvestigated with multiple or current fixation protocols. Another problem is the difficulty in retrieving specimens for additional study. Organisms that were collected and studied but not deposited into a culture collection or herbarium are difficult to obtain for reexamination of cell structure or DNA sequencing or for identity verification.
Micrographs accompany taxon entries whenever possible, which lets a user inspect the data on which entries are based. This also helps the user to understand better a contributor’s interpretation of subcellular features. To maximize the availability of micrographs for the database, authors are strongly encouraged to publish in journals that grant permission to display copyrighted figures at no cost to the scientific community. As more journals become available online, entries may include direct links to their source references and figures. Because of the three-dimensional nature of many characters in the database, serial sections are important for understanding the shape and placement of cellular structures and organelles. Although only a limited number of figures may be included in a publication, supplemental micrographs should be included in the Structural and Biochemical Database to provide a complete record of the characters. Images submitted to the Website should be in JPEG format with 72 pixels per inch (29 pixels per cm) and should be no larger than 400 pixels in either height or width. Details about current submission requirements are provided at the site.
The ability to combine character state data from multiple entries and display them in NEXUS format encourages data analysis independent of, or combined with, molecular data. However the NEXUS-formatted text may require editing before analysis. For example multiple entries for a character can occur in a species, depending upon whether data were acquired from more than one structure, cell type or developmental stage as noted above. The character states may be consolidated to produce a single species entry in the data file. In rare cases species may exhibit multiple character states for the same cell type.
Although the Structural and Biochemical Database was designed for public use, to become a valuable resource it requires mycological community involvement in its development. Undertaking new ultrastructural studies is time-consuming, and more contributors are needed to increase the rate of data entry and acquisition. We anticipate that periodic meetings of the mycological community will be required to refine character definitions and character state descriptions. While data that do not conform to existing characters and states still may be included in the "Notes" field for each taxon, such refinement allows for more accurate representation of the organisms.
With the involvement of a large number of contributors, the quality of the data must be ensured to the best of the administrators’ abilities. Specific mycological expertise is required to interpret image data accurately and translate them into information that can be analyzed. Criteria for contributors may include scientific community membership, relevant publications in peer-reviewed journals and/or recommendations from colleagues. In addition the identities of contributors who submit new data or edit existing data are recorded with the entries. Contributors also must complete justification statements for changes to the data. These features emphasize the responsibility of contributors and provide accountability to users.
Character homology.— – Comparison of characters across phyla presents challenges in homology assessment. Some characters may have a basic structure (e.g. SPB form), which unites a broad group of taxa, and a more detailed form limited to more closely related taxa. Both general and detailed character states are needed to encompass the structural detail for phylogenetic analyses, and these states are treated in separate characters.
Ontogenetic similarity also was used in the determination of character homologies. When there was a clear difference between character states present at two or more developmental stages, we defined subgroups of similar characters according to the developmental stages in which these states are present. For example the septal pore occlusion in the ascus of Sordaria humana (FIG. 2G–H) is an elaborate membrane system when immature but develops into a simple membranous cap at maturity (Beckett 1981). Thus we partitioned septal pore occlusion characters in ascogenous hypha or ascus into two subgroups, immature and mature. This was critical to avoid treating potentially nonhomologous but similar looking character states at different developmental stages as homologous.
|
, Lutzoni et al 2004). Many types of septal pore occlusions occur in Fungi (character 7) and they have been treated as homologous. Most of these character states are limited to specific taxonomic groups but some states occur in more than one phylum. Multiperforate septa (character 17) may be independently derived in most or all cases but are treated as homologous for now. It is uncertain if the septal pore occlusions in ascogenous hypha and ascus (characters 19, 21, 24, 26) in different classes are homologous; however they are treated as such for the present. The intranuclear element (character 47) in the Basidiomycota may not be homologous with that in the Mucoromycotina (Mucorales). In the former it contains actin (Hoch and Staples 1983) while in the latter it acts as a microtubule-organizing center.
Character mapping.— –
The data matrix for character mapping (SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE I) contains 42 parsimony-informative, three parsimony-uninformative and two invariant characters. Character states for septa and for SPB and nuclear division characters are illustrated (FIGS. 2
–3). The data matrix contains all of the nuclear division studies with usable information and septal data for all of these taxa if it was available. Only 27 taxa have data for both septal and SPB/ nuclear division characters states: 20 Basidiomycota, 4 Ascomycota, 1 Blastocladiomycotina ( James et al this issue), 1 Chytridiomycota, and Basidiobolus. Of those taxa with vegetative septal data 97% have data for 50% or more of the characters, while 55% of taxa with data for SPB and nuclear division characters have 50% or more of the characters.
|
). This partly reflects the incompleteness of the studies available and the plesiomorphic nature of some characters. The basal clade (A) linking the Blastocladiomycotina with higher taxa is supported by a change to an intact metaphase nuclear envelope from one with polar fenestrae in the Chytridiomycotina and the loss of perinuclear endoplasmic reticulum. The timing of spindle pole body migration before nuclear division (character 37) is too seldom studied to support this clade conclusively. Clade B linking the Entomophthoromycotina, Basidiobolus and Harpellomycotina with higher taxa is supported by the loss of multiperforate septa and centrioles. Clade C linking the Mucoromycotina and Dikarya is supported by SPB migration during spindle formation, presence of a central spindle and, possibly, the absence of a metaphase plate, but the latter character needs confirmation from additional taxa in the Mucoromycotina. Dikarya is supported by the uniperforate septal pore, a plaque or disk-shaped SPB and possession of an intact metaphase nuclear envelope with SPBs plugging the polar fenestrae. The intranuclear element (character 47) is a differentiated region that forms within the nucleus at late interphase opposite the external SPB in many taxa of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. Whether the internal component of the SPB of the Mucoromycotina is homologous is unclear. The Basidiomycota may be supported by two characters, septal pore with un-elaborated margin and the presence of spindle vesicles; the spindle vesicle character is insufficiently studied to provide support for this phylum. The Ascomycota is supported only by a disk-shaped SPB.
|
). The Chytridiomycotina is not resolved with molecular data, but the Chytridiomycetes and Monoblepharomycetes share similar SPB-nuclear envelope organization (FIG. 3A). The Blastocladiomycotina is distinguished by its distinctive type of multiperforate septum with lateral pores, and by the intact nuclear envelope and distinctive SPB during nuclear division (FIGS. 2B, 3B). The distinctive uniperforate septum with lenticular cavity containing a thickened plate characterizes the Harpellomycotina (FIG. 2C). The Entomophthoromycotina has no defining characters in the summary cladogram but this reflects the scarcity of nuclear division-SPB studies (FIG. 3D). The septal structure for a species of Entomophthoromycotina indicates a close affinity to the Harpellomycotina but the absence of data for multiple taxa results in this synapomorphy not being supported by the approximate methods used to trace characters on the cladogram. Basidiobolus possesses a unique SPB strongly suggestive of a reduced centriole (FIG. 3C). Several synapomorphic characters support the Mucoromycotina, especially the multiperforate septum with plasmodesmata and the distinctive SPB with small amounts of extranuclear and intranuclear material (FIGS. 2D, 3E).
Among the Basidiomycota the Pucciniomycotina is supported by the uniperforate septal pore, which may have a distinctive cytoplasmic organization and may be associated with microbodies (FIGS. 2I, 4). If the microbodies can be demonstrated to be homologous with Woronin bodies, the organization at the pore would be plesiomorphic for this subphylum and for the Ascomycota. The disk or subgloboid SPB (FIG. 3I–J) and condensed interphase chromatin support the Pucciniomycotina. The Ustilaginomycotina and Agaricomycotina share a globular SPB but the fate of the nucleolus during nuclear division (character 46) is too little studied to draw conclusions. The Ustilaginomycotina is supported by a septal pore closed by distinctive membranous plates and by a subgloboid SPB with a curved internal layer in the limited number of taxa studied (FIGS. 2J–K, 3K). The Agaricomycotina is strongly supported by septal pore characters and by the globoid SPB (FIGS. 2L–M, 3L).
The Taphrinomycotina lacks supporting characters, while the other subphyla of the Ascomycota seem to have more support (FIG. 4). The Saccharomycotina appears to be characterized by the absence of septal pores or the presence of a multiperforate septum with desmotubules (FIG. 2E), but the uniperforate septum also has been reported in Neolecta vitellina (Landvik et al 2003). SPBs of the Saccharomycotina are a unifying character at the phylum level (FIG. 3H). The Pezizomycotina is well supported by a uniperforate or multiperforate septum associated with Woronin bodies and by the intact metaphase nuclear envelope (FIGS. 2F, 3F–G).
At the class level in the Basidiomycota the Tremellomycetes is supported by the elaborated septal pore cap (FIG. 2L). The phylogenetic signal can be confused by the possession of two conflicting character states in Trichosporon sporotrichoides, which usually lacks septal pore caps but does form them at times (Müller et al 1998). The clade joining the Dacrymycetes and the Agaricomycetes is strongly supported by the substructure of the septal pore cap (FIG. 2M), and pore cap structure also supports each of these classes. The Agaricomycetes is strongly supported by the considerable expansion of the globular SPB during nuclear division and in many cases by the loose polar fenestrae surrounding the SPB (FIG. 3L).
Among the classes of the Ascomycota many lack support because of the paucity of subcellular studies. The Pezizomycetes is supported by the distinctive pore occlusions in vegetative hyphae and in the immature and mature ascogenous hypha/ascus. The clade linking the Leotiomycetes and the Sordariomycetes appears to be supported by SPB form and nuclear envelope organization during nuclear division. The Leotiomycetes receives some support from the vegetative pore occlusion, while the Sordariomycetes are strongly supported by the ascogenous hypha/ascus pore occlusions in immature and mature hyphae (FIG. 2G–H). The Lecanoromycetes receives strong support from the multiperforate septum.
Structural data are important for understanding the evolutionary history of the Fungi. The general shortage of structural studies and their uneven distribution among taxonomic groups make it difficult to draw firm conclusions for many characters on the summary cladogram. The current database, nevertheless, is useful in that it provides guidance on character assessment and on obtaining complete datasets for future studies. It also provides a central comprehensive repository for structural and biochemical data. Constructing the database and using the data revealed problems with the assessment of homology, such as the relationship between vegetative and reproductive septa. Determining the evolutionary significance of structural and biochemical characters depends entirely on the assessment of homology between two or more developmental or organismal traits. These assessments are the most critical and fundamental questions in the evolutionary history of the Fungi, yet remain hampered by lack of sampling. In the future molecular phylogenetic studies will be able to identify and analyze the genes that code for these structures and provide a more in-depth understanding of character evolution. We hope that the challenges that we have highlighted will aid discussion of character coding and homology assessment.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
1 Corresponding author. E-mail: celio001{at}umn.edu
|
LITERATURE CITED |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
|---|
Bauer R, Mendgen K, Oberwinkler F. 1995. Septal pore apparatus of the smut Ustacystis waldsteiniae. Mycologia 87:18–24.[CrossRef]
———, Oberwinkler F, Vanky K. 1997. Ultrastructural markers and systematics in smut fungi and allied taxa. Can J Bot 75:1273–1314.
Beckett A. 1981. The ultrastructure of septal pores and associated structures in the ascogenous hyphae and asci of Sordaria humana. Protoplasma 107:127–147.[CrossRef]
Begerow D, Stoll M, Bauer R. 2006. A phylogenetic hypothesis of Ustilaginomycotina based on multiple gene analyses and morphological data. Mycologia 98: 906–916.
Benny GL, Humber RA, Morton JB. 2001. Zygomycota: Zygomycetes. In: McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA., eds. The Mycota—systematics and evolution. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. VIIA: 113–146.
Berbee ML, Wells K. 1988. Ultrastructural studies of mitosis and the septal pore apparatus in Tremella globospora. Mycologia 80:479–492.[CrossRef]
Binder M, Hibbett DS. 2006. Molecular systematics and diversification of Boletales. Mycologia 98:971–983.
Blackwell M, Hibbett DS, Taylor JW, Spatafora JW. 2006. Research Coordination Networks: a phylogeny for kingdom Fungi. Mycologia 98:829–837.
Bourett TM, McLaughlin DJ. 1986. Mitosis and septum formation in the basidiomycete Helicobasidium mompa. Can J Bot 64:130–145.
Bracker CE. 1967. Ultrastructure of fungi. Ann Rev Phytopathol 5:343–374.[CrossRef]
Bruns TD, Vilgalys R, Barns SM, Gonzalez D, Hibbett DS, Lane DJ, Simon L, Sticket S, Szaro TM, Weisburg WG, Sogin ML. 1992. Evolutionary relationships within the Fungi: analyses of nuclear small subunit RNA sequences. Mol Phylogen Evol 1:231–241.[CrossRef][Medline]
Butt TM, Beckett A. 1984. Ultrastructure and behaviour of the spindle pole body of the aphid-pathogenic fungus Erynia neoaphidis. Protoplasma 120:61–71.[CrossRef]
Cavalier-Smith T, Allsop MTEP, Chae EE. 1994. Thrausto-chytrids are chromists, not fungi: 18S rRNA signatures of heterokonta. Philos Trans Roy Soc Lond B339:139–146.
Eriksson OE. 2005. Outline of Ascomycota—2005. Myconet 11:1–113.
Flegler SL, Heckman Jr. JW, Klomparens KL. 1993. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co. 225 p.
Hawker LE, Gooday MA, Bracker CE. 1966. Plasmodesmata in fungal cell walls. Nature 212:635.[Medline]
Hayat MA. 1970. Principles and techniques of electron microscopy. I. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 412 p.
Hibbett DS, Pine EM, Langer E, Langer G, Donoghue MJ. 1997. Evolution of gilled mushrooms and puffballs inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 94:12002–12006.
———, Thorn RG. 2001. Basidiomycota: Homobasidiomycetes. In: McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA., eds. The Mycota—systematics and evolution. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. VIIB: 121–168.
Hoch HC. 1986. Freeze-substitution of fungi. In: Aldrich HC, Todd WJ, eds. Ultrastructure techniques for microorganisms. New York: Pelnum Publishing Corp. p 183–212.
———, Staples RC. 1983. Visualization of actin in situ by rhodamine-conjugated phalloin in the fungus Uromyces phaseoli. Eur J Cell Biol 32:52–58.[Medline]
Hosaka K, Bates ST, Beever RE, Castellano MA, ColganIIIW, Domínguez LS, Nouhra ER, Geml J, Giachini AJ, Kenney SR, Simpson NB, Spatafora JW, Trappe JM. 2006. Molecular phylogenetics of the gomphoid-phalloid fungi with an establishment of the new subclass Phallomycetidae and two new orders. Mycologia 98: 949–959.
Ichida AA, Fuller MS. 1968. Ultrastructure of mitosis in the aquatic fungus Catenaria anguillulae. Mycologia 60: 141–155.[CrossRef][Medline]
James TY, Letcher PM, Longcore JE, Mozley-Standridge SE, Porter D, Powell MJ, Griffith GW, Vilgalys R. 2006. A molecular phylogeny of the flagellated fungi (Chytridiomycota) and a proposal for a new phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.
———, Porter D, Leander CA, Vilgalys R, Longcore JE. 2000. Molecular phylogenetics of the Chytridiomycota supports the utility of ultrastructural data in chytrid systematics. Can J Bot 78:336–350.[CrossRef]
———, Kauff F, Schoch C, Matheny PB, Hofstetter V, Cox CJ, Celio G, Guiedan C, Fraker E, Miadlikowska J, Lumbsh T, Rauhut A, Reeb V, Arnold AE, Amtoft A, Stajich JE, Hosaka K, Sung G-H, Johnson D, O’Rourke B, Binder M, Curtis JM, Slot JC, Wang Z, Wilson AW, Schüßler A, Longcore JE, O’Donnell K, Mozley-Standridge S, Porter D, Letcher PM, Powell MJ, Taylor JW, White MM, Griffith GW, Davies DR, Sugiyama J, Rossman AY, Rogers JD, Pfister DH, Hewitt D, Hansen K, Hambleton S, Shoemaker RA, Kohlmeyer J, Volkmann-Kohlmeyer B, Spotts RA, Serdani M, Crous PW, Hughes KW, Matsuura K, Langer E, Langer G, Untereiner WA, Lücking R, Büdel B, Geiser DM, Aptroot A, Buck WR, Cole MS, Diederich P, Hillis DM, Printzen C, Schmitt I, Schultz M, Yahr R, Zavarzin A, Hibbett DS, Lutzoni F, McLaughlin DJ, Spatafora JW, Vilgalys R. 2006. Reconstructing the early evolution of the fungi using a six gene phylogeny. Nature 443: 818–822.[CrossRef][Medline]
Jedd G, Chua N. 2000. A new self-assembled peroxisomal vesicle required for efficient resealing of the plasma membrane. Nat Cell Biol 2:226–231.[CrossRef][Medline]
Jeffries P, Young TWK. 1979. Ultrastructure of septa in Dimargaris cristalligena R.K. Benjamin. J Gen Microbiol 111:303–311.
Kreger-van Rij NJW, Veenhuis M. 1972. Some features of vegetative and sexual reproduction in Endomyces species. Can J Bot 50:1691–1695.[CrossRef]
Kurzman CP, Sugiuama J. 2001. Ascomycetous yeasts and yeastlike taxa. In: McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA., eds. The Mycota—systematics and evolution. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. VIIA:179–200.
Landvik S. 1996. Neolecta, a fruit-body-producing genus of the basal ascomycetes as shown by SSU and LSU rDNA sequences. Mycol Res 100:199–202.[CrossRef]
———, Schumacher TK, Eriksson OE, Moss ST. 2003. Morphology and ultrastructure of Neolecta species. Mycol Res 107:1021–1031.[CrossRef][Medline]
Lutzoni F, Kauff F, Cox CJ, McLaughlin D, Celio G, Dentinger B, Padamsee M, Hibbett D, James TY, Baloch E, Grube M, Reeb V, Hofstetter V, Schoch C, Arnold AE, Miadlikowska J, Spatafora J, Johnson D, Hambleton S, Crockett M, Shoemaker R, Sung G-H, Lücking R, Lumbsch T, O’Donnell K, Binder M, Diederich P, Ertz D, Gueidan C, Hansen K, Harris RC, Hosada K, Lim Y-W, Matheny B, Nishida H, Pfister D, Rogers J, Rossman A, Schmitt I, Sipman H, Stone J, Sugiyama J, Yahr R, Vilgalys R. 2004. Assembling the fungal tree of life: progress, classification, and evolution of subcellular traits. Am J Bot 91: 1446–1480.
Maddison DR, Maddison WP. 2005. MacClade: analysis of phylogeny and character evolution. Version 4.02. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. 502 p.
———, Swofford DL, Maddison WP. 1997. NEXUS: an extensible file format for systematic information. Syst Bot 46:590–621.
Matheny PB, Wang Z, Binder M, Curtis JM, Lim YW, Nilsson RH, Hughes KW, Petersen RH, Hofstettter V, Ammirati JF, Schoch C, Langer GE, McLaughlin DJ, Wilson AW, Crane PE, Froslev T, Ge Z-W, Kerrigan RW, Slot JC, Vellinga EC, Yang ZL, Aime MC, Baroni TJ, Fischer M, Hosaka K, Matsuura K, Seidl MT, Vauras J, Hibbett DS. In press. Contributions of rpb2 and tef1 to the phylogeny of mushrooms and allies (Basidiomycota, Fungi). Mol Phylogen Evol (In press).
McCully EK, Robinow CF. 1972. Mitosis in heterobasidiomycetous yeasts. I. Leucosporidium scottii (Candida scottii). J Cell Sci 10:857–881.
———. 1973. Mitosis in Mucor hiemalis. Arch Mikrobiol 94: 133–148.[CrossRef][Medline]
McKerracher LJ, Heath IB. 1985. The structure and cycle of the nucleus-associated organelle in two species of Basidiobolus. Mycologia 77:412–417.[CrossRef]
McLaughlin DJ, Frieders EM, Lü HS. 1995. A microscopist’s view of heterobasidiomycete phylogeny. Stud Mycol 38: 91–109.
Meyer RJ, Fuller MS. 1985. Structure and development of hyphal septa in Allomyces. Am J Bot 72:1458–1465.[CrossRef]
Moens PB, Rapport E. 1971. Spindles, spindle plaques, and meiosis in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Hansen). J. Cell Biol. 50:344–361.
Momany M, Richardson EA, Sickle CV, Jedd G. 2002. Mapping Woronin body position in Aspergillus nidulans. Mycologia 94:260–266.
Müller WH, Montijn RC, Humbel BM, van Aelst AC, Boon EJMC, van der Krift TP, Boekhout T. 1998. Structural differences between two types of badisiomycete septal pore caps. Microbiol 144:1721–1730.
O’Donnell KL, McLaughlin DJ. 1984. Ultrastructure of meiosis in Ustilago maydis. Mycologia 76:468–485.[CrossRef]
Powell MJ. 1974. Fine structure of plasmodesmata in a chytrid. Mycologia 66:606–614.[CrossRef]
———. 1980. Mitosis in the aquatic fungus Rhizophydium spherotheca (Chytridiales). Am J Bot 67:839–853.[CrossRef]
Schrantz J-P. 1970. Etude cytologique, en microscopie optique et électronique, de quelques Ascomycètes. I. Le noyau. Rev Cytol Biol Vég 33:1–100.
Spatafora JW, Sung G-H, Johnson D, Hesse C, Hosaka K, O’Rourke B, Serdani M, Spotts R, Lutzoni F, Hofstetter V, Fraker E, Gueidan C, Miadlikowska J, Reeb V, Lumbsch T, Lücking R, Schmitt I, Aptroot A, Roux C, Miller A, Geiser D, Hafellner J, Hestmark G, Arnold AE, Büdel B, Rauhut A, Hewitt D, Untereiner W, Cole MS, Scheidegger C, Schultz M, Sipman H, Schoch C. 2006. A five-gene phylogeny of Pezizomycotina. Mycologia 98: 1020–1030.
Swann EC, Frieders EM, McLaughlin DJ. 2001. Urediniomycetes. In: McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA., eds. The Mycota—systematics and evolution. Berlin: Springer Verlag. B:37–56.
———, Taylor JW. 1995. Phylogenetic perspectives on basidiomycete systematics: evidence from the 18S rRNA gene. Can J Bot 73:S862–S868.[CrossRef]
White MM, James TY, O’Donnell K, Cafaro MJ, Tanabe Y, Sugiyama J. 2006. Phylogeny of the Zygomycota based on nuclear ribosomal sequence data. Mycologia 98: 872–884.
Zickler D. 1970. Division spindle and centrosomal plaques during mitosis and meiosis in some Ascomycetes. Chromosoma 30:287–304.[CrossRef]
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  T. S. Jenkinson, G. J. Celio, M. Padamsee, B. T.M. Dentinger, M. L. Meyer, and D. J. McLaughlin Conservation of cytoplasmic organization in the cystidia of Suillus species Mycologia, July 1, 2008; 100(4): 539 - 547. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. J. Celio, M. Padamsee, B. T.M. Dentinger, K. A. Josephsen, T. S. Jenkinson, E. G. McLaughlin, and D. J. McLaughlin Septal pore apparatus and nuclear division of Auriscalpium vulgare. Mycologia, September 1, 2007; 99(5): 644 - 654. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
